A martyr (Greek Language is a term most commonly used to refer to so-called "natural languages" — the spoken forms of communication ubiquitous among humankind. By extension the term also refers to the type of thought process which creates and uses language. Essential to both meanings is the systematic creation, maintenance and use of systems of: μάρτυς, mártys, "witness"; stem In one usage, a stem is a form to which affixes can be attached. Thus, in this usage, the English word friendships contains the stem friend, to which the derivational suffix -ship is attached to form a new stem friendship, to which the inflectional suffix -s is attached. In a variant of this usage, the root of the word is not counted as a stem μάρτυρ-, mártyr-) is somebody who suffers persecution Persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual or group by another group. The most common forms are religious persecution, ethnic persecution, and political persecution, though there is naturally some overlap between these terms and death for the people, a country or an organization, or refusing to renounce a belief, usually religious, political or rights.

Meaning

In its original meaning, the word martyr, meaning witness A witness is someone who has firsthand knowledge about a crime or significant event through their senses , and can help certify important considerations to the crime or event. A witness who has seen the event firsthand is known as an "eye-witness". Witnesses are often called before a court of law to testify in trials, was used in the secular sphere as well as in the New Testament The New Testament is the name given to the second major division of the Christian Bible, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament. Unlike the Old Testament, the contents of the New Testament deal explicitly with Christianity, although both the Old and New Testament are regarded, together, as Sacred Scripture. The New Testament of the Bible The Bible refers to collections of sacred scripture of Judaism and Christianity. There is no single version: both the individual books and their order vary. The Hebrew Bible contains 24 books that were rearranged into 39 by Christian denominations, while complete Christian Bibles range from the 66 books of the Protestant canon to 81 books in the.^[1] The process of bearing witness was not intended to lead to the death of the witness, although it is known from ancient writers (e.g. Josephus Josephus , also Yosef Ben Matityahu (Joseph son of Matthias) and Titus Flavius Josephus was a first-century Jewish historian and hagiographer of priestly and royal ancestry who recorded first century Jewish history, such as the First Jewish–Roman War which resulted in the Destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. He has been credited by many as) and from the New Testament that witnesses often died for their testimonies.

During the early Christian centuries, the term acquired the extended meaning of a believer who is called to witness for their religious belief, and on account of this witness, endures suffering and/or death. The term, in this later sense, entered the English language as a loanword By contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept, whereby it is the meaning or idiom that is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself. The word loanword is itself a calque of the German Lehnwort, while calque is a loanword from French. The death of a martyr or the value attributed to it is called martyrdom.

Judaism

Martyrdom in Judaism Judaism is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people. Judaism, originating in the Hebrew Bible and explored in later texts such as the Talmud, is considered by Jews to be the expression of the covenantal relationship God developed with the Children of Israel. According to traditional Rabbinic Judaism, God revealed is one of the main examples of Kiddush Hashem, meaning "sanctification of God's name" through public dedication to Jewish practice. Religious martyrdom is considered one of the more significant contributions of Hellenistic Judaism Hellenistic Judaism was a movement which existed in the Jewish diaspora before the Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, that sought to establish a Hebraic-Jewish religious tradition within the culture and language of Hellenism. The major literary product of the contact of Judaism and Hellenistic culture is the Septuagint to western civilization. It is believed that the concept of voluntary death for God developed out of the conflict between King Antiochus Epiphanes IV Antiochus IV Epiphanes ("Manifest ", "the Illustrious"; pronounced /ænˈtaɪ.əkəs ɛˈpɪfəniːz/, from Greek: Ἀντίοχος Ἐπιφανὴς; born c. 215 BC; died 164 BC) ruled the Seleucid Empire from 175 BC until his death in 164 BC. He was a son of King Antiochus III the Great and the brother of Seleucus IV and the Jewish people. 1 Maccabees The first book of Maccabees is a book written in Hebrew by a Jewish author after the restoration of an independent Jewish kingdom, about the latter part of the second century B.C.E. The original Hebrew is lost and the most important surviving version is the Greek translation contained in the Septuagint. The book is held as canonical scripture by and 2 Maccabees 2 Maccabees is, in the Christian tradition, a deuterocanonical book of the Bible, which focuses on the Jews' revolt against Antiochus IV Epiphanes and concludes with the defeat of the Syrian general Nicanor in 161 BC by Judas Maccabeus, the hero of the work recount numerous martyrdoms A martyr is somebody who suffers persecution and death for the people, a country or an organization, or refusing to renounce a belief, usually religious, political or rights suffered by Jews The Jews , also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation. Converts to Judaism, whose status as Jews within the Jewish ethnos resisting Hellenizing (adoption of Greek ideas or customs of a Hellenistic_civilization Hellenistic civilization represents the zenith of Greek influence in the ancient world from 323 BC to about 146 BC ; note, however that Koine Greek language and Hellenistic philosophy and religion are also indisputably elements of the Roman era until Late Antiquity. It was immediately preceded by the Classical Greece period, and immediately) by their Seleucid The Seleucid Empire was created out of the eastern conquests of the former Macedonian Empire of Alexander the Great. The Macedonian kingdom was centred in the Near East and regions of the Asian part of the earlier Achaemenid Persian Empire. At the height of its power it included central Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Persia, today's overlords, being executed for such crimes as observing the Sabbath, circumcising their children or refusing to eat pork or meat sacrificed to foreign gods. With few exceptions, this assumption has lasted from the early Christian period to this day, accepted both by Jews and Christians. For example, W. H. C. Frend Frend inclined towards the Low Church tradition. He was a sometimes reluctant liberal who cautiously supported the ordination of women but criticised Bishop Jenkins of Durham over his non-traditional ideas about Christmas. He was considered a good and humble pastor and an enlightening, if theologically uncoventional, preacher asserted that from early times “Judaism was itself a religion of martyrdom” and that it was this “Jewish psychology of martyrdom” that inspired Christian martyrdom.

Christianity

In Christianity Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. Christianity comprises three major branches: Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy (the two split from one another in 1054 A.D.), and Protestantism (which came into existence during the Protestant Reformation of the 16, a martyr, in accordance with the meaning of the original Greek martys in the New Testament, is one who brings a testimony, usually written or verbal. In particular, the testimony is that of the Christian Gospel A gospel is a writing that describes the life, ministry, death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus. The word is primarily used to refer to the four canonical gospels: the Gospel of Matthew, Gospel of Mark, Gospel of Luke and Gospel of John although it is also used for non-canonical writings such as the Gospel of Thomas. The term "gospel", or more generally, the Word of God. A Christian witness is a biblical witness whether or not death follows.^[2]. However over time many Christian testimonies were rejected, and the witnesses put to death, and the word "martyr" developed its present sense. Where death ensues, the witnesses follow the example of Jesus Jesus of Nazareth , also known as Jesus Christ or simply Jesus, is the central figure of Christianity, which views him as the Messiah foretold in the Old Testament. Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God (in the concept of the Trinity, he is God [as] the Son), who came to provide humankind with salvation and reconciliation with God by his in offering up their lives for truth. The first Christian witness to be killed for his testimony was Saint Stephen Saint Stephen , known as the protomartyr of Christianity, is venerated as a saint in the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran and Eastern Orthodox Churches. Stephen means "wreath" or "crown" in Greek (whose name means "crown"), and those who suffer martyrdom are said to have been "crowned."

In the context of church history, from the time of the persecution of early Christians Early Christianity is commonly defined as the Christianity of the roughly three centuries between the Crucifixion of Jesus (c. 30) and the First Council of Nicaea (325). At first, the Christian church was centered in Jerusalem, and its leaders included James, Peter, and John. The first Christians were all Jewish or Jewish Proselytes, either by in the Roman Empire The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean. The term is used to describe the Roman state during and after the time of the first emperor, Augustus, it developed that a martyr was one who was killed for maintaining a religious Religion is the belief in and worship of a god or gods, or a set of beliefs concerning the origin and purpose of the universe. It is commonly regarded as consisting of a person’s relation to God or to gods or spirits. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories associated with their deity or deities, that are belief, knowing that this will almost certainly result in imminent death (though without intentionally seeking death Death is the termination of the biological functions that sustain a living organism. The word refers both to the particular processes of life's cessation as well as to the condition or state of a formerly-living body).This definition of "martyr" is not specifically restricted to the Christian faith.

Some Christians view death in sectarian Sectarianism, according to one definition, is bigotry, discrimination or hatred arising from attaching importance to perceived differences between subdivisions within a group, such as between different denominations of a religion or factions of a political movement persecution, as well as religious persecution, as martyrdom. In Christian history, Foxe's Book of Martyrs The Book of Martyrs, by John Foxe, is an apocalyptically-oriented account of the persecutions of Protestants, mainly in England, many of whom had died for their beliefs within the decade immediately preceding its initial publication. It was first published by John Day, a committed Protestant, in 1563. Lavishly produced and illustrated with many recounts religious persecutions during the Protestant Reformation The Protestant Reformation was the European Christian reform movement that established Protestantism as a constituent branch of contemporary Christianity. It began in 1517 when Martin Luther published The Ninety-Five Theses, and concluded in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia that ended one hundred and thirty-one years of consecutive European.

Usage of "martyr" is also common among Arab Christians Christian Arabs are Christians from the Arab world that are self-identified as being Arab, like Arab Muslims. For the purposes of this article, Arabic-speaking Christians refers to Christians from the Arab world who do not identify as Arab. Their origins are from Southwest Asia and North Africa and have been blended with many cultures and (i.e. anyone killed in relation to Christianity or a Christian community), indicating the persecution Arab Christians continue to experience to this day.

Islam

In Arabic, a martyr is termed "shahid Shahid is an Arabic word meaning "witness". It is a religious term in Islam, literally meaning "witness", but practically means a "martyr." It is used as a honorific for Muslims who have laid down their life fulfilling a religious commandment, or have died fighting in Jihad" (literally, "witness," as in the Greek root of the English word). The word shaheed appears in the Quran in a variety of contexts, including witnessing to righteousness (Quran 2:143), witnessing a financial transaction (Quran 2:282) and being killed, even in an accident as long as it doesn't happen with the intention to commit a sin, when they are believed to remain alive making them witnesses over worldly events without taking part in them anymore (Quran 3:140). The word also appears with these various meanings in the Hadith Hadith are narrations concerning the words and deeds of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Hadith are regarded by traditional Islamic schools of jurisprudence as important tools for understanding the Qur'an and in matters of jurisprudence. Hadith were evaluated and gathered into large collections mostly during the reign of Umar ibn AbdulAziz during the, the sayings of Muhammad Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullāh (Arabic: ﷴ; Transliteration: Muḥammad; pronounced [mʊˈħæmmæd] ; also spelled Muhammed or Mohammed) (ca. 570/571 Mecca[مَكَةَ ]/[ مَكَهْ ] – June 8, 632), was the founder of the religion of Islam [ إِسْلامْ ] and is regarded by Muslims as a messenger and prophet of God (Arabic: الله‎.

Hinduism / Sanathana Dharma

Despite the promotion of ahimsa Ahimsa is a term meaning to do no harm (literally: the avoidance of violence - himsa). It is an important tenet of the Indian religions (Hinduism, Buddhism and especially Jainism). Ahimsa is a rule of conduct that bars the killing or injuring of living beings. It is closely connected with the notion that all kinds of violence entail negative (non-violence) i.e. one of the Yamas Yamas, and its complement, Niyamas, represent a series of "right living" or ethical rules within Hinduism and Yoga. These are a form of moral imperatives, commandments, rules or goals. Every religion has a code of conduct, or series of "do's and don'ts", and the Yamas represent one of the "don't" lists within Hinduism, within Santana Dharma i.e. (The Way of Life), there is also the concept of righteous i.e. Dharma Dharma (Sanskrit: dhárma, Pāḷi dhamma) is a multivalent term of great importance in Indian philosophy and religions. In the context of Hinduism, it means one's righteous duty, and a Hindu's dharma is affected by the person's age, class, occupation, and gender. In modern Indian languages it can be equivalent simply to religion, depending on, where violence is used as a last resort after all other means have failed. Examples of this include in the Mahabharata The Mahabharata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Rāmāyaṇa. The epic is part of the Hindu itihāsa (or "history"), where the great war only took place. Upon completion of their exile term the Pandavas were refused the return of their portion of the kingdom by their cousin Duruyodhana's; and following which all means of peace talks by Krishna Krishna is a deity worshipped across many traditions in Hinduism in a variety of perspectives. While many Vaishnava groups recognize Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu, other traditions within Krishnaism consider him to be svayam bhagavan, or the Supreme Being, Vidura Vidura was an important figure in the Mahabharata, a major Hindu epic. He was half-brother to the kings Dhritarashtra and Pandu. He was a son of a maid-servant who served the queens of Hastinapura, Ambika and Ambalika. In some accounts, he was an incarnation of Yama or Dharma Raja, who was cursed by the sage, Mandavya, for imposing punishment on and Sanjaya Sanjay is a character from the ancient Indian epic Mahābhārata failed.

During the great war which commenced, even Arjuna Arjuna or Arjun is one of the Pandavas, the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata. Arjuna, whose name means 'bright', 'shining', 'white' or 'silver' (cf. Latin argentum), was such a peerless archer that he is often referred to as Jishnu - the undefeatable. The third of the five Pandava brothers, Arjuna was one of the children borne by Kunti, the was brought down with doubts e.g. attachment, sorrow, fear. This is where where Krishna Krishna is a deity worshipped across many traditions in Hinduism in a variety of perspectives. While many Vaishnava groups recognize Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu, other traditions within Krishnaism consider him to be svayam bhagavan, or the Supreme Being instructs Arjuna Arjuna or Arjun is one of the Pandavas, the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata. Arjuna, whose name means 'bright', 'shining', 'white' or 'silver' (cf. Latin argentum), was such a peerless archer that he is often referred to as Jishnu - the undefeatable. The third of the five Pandava brothers, Arjuna was one of the children borne by Kunti, the how to carry out his duty as a righteous warrior A warrior is a person experienced in or capable of engaging in combat or warfare, especially within the context of a tribal or clan-based society that recognizes a separate warrior class. According to the Random House Dictionary, the term warrior has two meanings. The first literal use refers to "someone engaged or experienced in warfare.& and fight.

Martyrdom A martyr is somebody who suffers persecution and death for the people, a country or an organization, or refusing to renounce a belief, usually religious, political or rights in war / battle is seen as highly noble in Hinduism Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism is often referred to as Sanātana Dharma by its adherents. Generic "types" of Hinduism that attempt to accommodate a variety of complex views span folk and Vedic Hinduism to bhakti tradition, as in Vaishnavism. Hinduism also includes yogic, i.e. in the ancient times the teachings were that if a man were to die the death of a Kshatriya Kshatriya or Kashtriya meaning warrior is one of the four varnas (social orders) in Hinduism. शर्म ब्राह्मणस्य वर्म क्षत्रियस्य गुप्तेति वैश्यस्य (Pāraskara Gṛhyasūtras 17.4). It traditionally constituted the military and ruling elite of the Vedic-Hindu on the battlefield he would attain moksha i.e. emancipation of the soul / no rebirth ; which is evident in the Bhagavad Gita where Krishna states.

Either being slain you will attain the heavenly worlds or by gaining victory you will enjoy the earthly kingdom; therefore O Arjuna, rise up and fight.^[3].

Bahá'í faith

In the Bahá'í Faith, a martyr is one who sacrifices their life serving humanity in the name of God.^[4] However, Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, discouraged the literal meaning of sacrificing one's life, and instead explained that martyrdom is devoting oneself to service to humanity.^[4]

Sikhism

Martyrdom, in Sikhism, is a fundamental concept, and represents an important institution of the faith.

Nazism

National Socialists derived the word blutzeuge, literally, "blood witness", from the Greek word, martyr.^{[citation needed]} Nazi propaganda during the Third Reich referred to itself as a movement and the word was used by Nazi ideologues to elevate the status of those who died for Nazism, such as those who died in the Beer Hall Putsch and people such as Herbert Norkus, Horst Wessel and Wilhelm Gustloff. Today, the word is only used by neo-nazis and other far right extremists.

Notes

1. ^ See e.g. Alison A. Trites, The New Testament Concept of Witness, ISBN 0-521-60934-8 and ISBN 9780521609340.
2. ^ See Davis, R."Martyr, or Witness?", New Matthew Bible Project
3. ^ http://www.bhagavad-gita.org/Gita/verse-02-37.html
4. ^ ^{a b} Winters, Jonah (1997-09-19). "Conclusion". Dying for God: Martyrdom in the Shii and Babi Religions. M.A. Thesis. http://bahai-library.com/theses/dying/dying8.conclusion.html. Retrieved 2007-01-23.

See also

• Martyrology
• Perpetua and Felicity
• Religious persecution
• Martyr complex
• Religious views on suicide

References

• Catholic Encyclopedia "Martyrs"
• Foster, Claude R. jr.: Paul Schneider, the Buchenwald apostle : a Christian martyr in Nazi Germany ; a sourcebook on the German Church struggle; Westchester, Pennsylvania: SSI Bookstore, West Chester University, 1995; ISBN 1-887732-01-2

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